The concept of electronegativity was introduced by Linus Pauling in the 1930s: The electronegativity Χ of a chemical element is the relative measure, expressed in numbers, of the tendency to attract the electron pair of a bond. The bonding partner with the higher electronegativity is referred to as electronegative, and the one with the lower electronegativity is referred to as electropositive. The electronegativity difference ΔEN allows statements to be made about the bond type and reaction of the partners in question.
In addition to the relative, dimensionless electronegativity scale according to Pauling - which is still very commonly used - several other approaches have been developed over time that consider electronegativities using quantitative methods (see the table below); the electronegativity values according to Allen, Mulliken, Sanderson and Allred-Rochow were taken into account here. The last two columns contain the values according to Ghosh-Gupta and Pearson, each in electron volts eV.
Linus Pauling initially calculated the electronegativity from the bond enthalpies and initially obtained rounded data [see column 1]. However, the resulting values did not prove to be additive quantities, i.e., for example, the condition ΔC-F - ΔC-Cl = ΔF-Cl (Δ = difference in electronegativities) is not fulfilled.
According to Pauling, the difference in electronegativity between atoms A and B is expressed by the following equation (Ed = dissociation energies in eV):
The scale was chosen so that the relative electronegativity of hydrogen ΧR is equal to 2.1. The sign of the square root was chosen intuitively by Pauling [11].
Z | Element | Pauling orig. | Pauling | Allen | Mulliken | Sander- son | Allred- Rochow | Ghosh- Gupta [eV] | Pearson [eV] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[1] | [2] | [3] | [4] | [5] | [6] | [7] | [8] | |||
1 | Hydrogen | H | 2.1 | 2.20 | 2.300 | 2.8 | 2.31 | 2.20 | 7.1862 | 7.18 |
2 | Helium | He | 4.160 | 5.50 | 12.0568 | |||||
3 | Lithium | Li | 1.0 | 0.98 | 0.912 | 1.3 | 0.86 | 0.97 | 2.4435 | 3.01 |
4 | Beryllium | Be | 1.5 | 1.57 | 1.576 | 1.61 | 1.47 | 3.7060 | 4.9 | |
5 | Boron | B | 2.0 | 2.04 | 2.051 | 1.8 | 1.88 | 2.01 | 4.9686 | 4.29 |
6 | Carbon | C | 2.5 | 2.55 | 2.544 | 2.5 | 2.47 | 2.50 | 6.2338 | 6.27 |
7 | Oxygen | N | 3.0 | 3.04 | 3.066 | 2.9 | 2.93 | 3.07 | 7.4964 | 7.30 |
8 | Nitrogen | O | 3.5 | 3.44 | 3.610 | 3.0 | 3.46 | 3.50 | 8.7861 | 7.54 |
9 | Fluorine | F | 4.0 | 3.98 | 4.193 | 4.1 | 3.92 | 4.10 | 10.0378 | 10.41 |
10 | Neon | Ne | 4.789 | 4.84 | 11.3003 | |||||
11 | Sodium | Na | 0.9 | 0.93 | 0.869 | 1.2 | 0.85 | 1.01 | 2.4380 | 2.85 |
12 | Magnesium | Mg | 1.2 | 1.31 | 1.293 | 1.42 | 1.23 | 3.6108 | 3.75 | |
13 | Aluminium | Al | 1.5 | 1.61 | 1.613 | 1.4 | 1.54 | 1.47 | 4.6393 | 3.23 |
14 | Silicon | Si | 1.8 | 1.9 | 1.916 | 2.0 | 1.74 | 1.74 | 5.5236 | 4.77 |
15 | Phosphorus | P | 2.1 | 2.19 | 2.253 | 2.3 | 2.16 | 2.06 | 6.3405 | 5.62 |
16 | Sulfur | S | 2.5 | 2.58 | 2.589 | 2.5 | 2.66 | 2.44 | 6.8379 | 6.22 |
17 | Chlorine | Cl | 3.0 | 3.16 | 2.869 | 3.3 | 3.28 | 2.83 | 7.2923 | 8.30 |
18 | Argon | Ar | 3.242 | 3.92 | 3.20 | 7.6515 | ||||
19 | Potassium | K | 0.8 | 0.82 | 0.734 | 1.1 | 0.74 | 0.91 | 2.0027 | 2.42 |
20 | Calcium | Ca | 1.0 | 1.00 | 1.034 | 1.06 | 1.04 | 2.6965 | 2.2 | |
21 | Scandium | Sc | 1.3 | 1.36 | 1.19 | 1.09 | 1.20 | 2.8571 | 3.34 | |
22 | Titanium | Ti | 1.5 | 1.54 | 1.38 | 1.32 | 3.0040 | 3.45 | ||
23 | Vanadium | V | 1.6 | 1.63 | 1.53 | 1.45 | 3.1482 | 3.6 | ||
24 | Chromium | Cr | 1.6 | 1.66 | 1.65 | 1.56 | 3.2951 | 3.72 | ||
25 | Manganese | Mn | 1.5 | 1.55 | 1.75 | 1.60 | 3.4349 | 3.72 | ||
26 | Iron | Fe | 1.8 | 1.83 | 1.80 | 1.64 | 3.5836 | 4.06 | ||
27 | Cobalt | Co | 1.8 | 1.88 | 1.84 | 1.70 | 3.7305 | 4.3 | ||
28 | Nickel | Ni | 1.8 | 1.91 | 1.88 | 1.75 | 3.8584 | 4.40 | ||
29 | Copper | Cu | 1.9 | 1.90 | 1.85 | 1.75 | 4.0026 | 4.48 | ||
30 | Zinc | Zn | 1.6 | 1.65 | 1.59 | 1.86 | 1.66 | 4.1332 | 4.45 | |
31 | Gallium | Ga | 1.6 | 1.81 | 1.756 | 1.4 | 2.10 | 1.82 | 4.6638 | 3.2 |
32 | Germanium | Ge | 1.8 | 2.01 | 1.994 | 1.9 | 2.31 | 2.02 | 5.1318 | 4.6 |
33 | Arsenic | As | 2.0 | 2.18 | 2.211 | 2.2 | 2.53 | 2.20 | 5.5372 | 5.3 |
34 | Selenium | Se | 2.4 | 2.55 | 2.434 | 2.4 | 2.76 | 2.48 | 5.8746 | 5.89 |
35 | Bromine | Br | 2.8 | 2.96 | 2.685 | 3.0 | 2.96 | 2.74 | 6.1658 | 7.59 |
36 | Krypton | Kr | 2.90 | 2.966 | 3.17 | 2.94 | 6.3916 | |||
37 | Rubidium | Rb | 0.8 | 0.82 | 0.706 | 1.0 | 0.70 | 0.89 | 2.0135 | 2.34 |
38 | Strontium | Sr | 1.0 | 0.95 | 0.963 | 0.96 | 0.99 | 2.5849 | 2.0 | |
39 | Yttrium | Y | 1.2 | 1.22 | 1.12 | 1.4 | 0.98 | 1.11 | 2.7237 | 3.19 |
40 | Zirconium | Zr | 1.4 | 1.33 | 1.32 | 1.22 | 2.8489 | 3.64 | ||
41 | Niobium | Nb | 1.6 | 1.60 | 1.41 | 1.23 | 2.9740 | 4.0 | ||
42 | Molybdenum | Mo | 1.8 | 2.16 | 1.47 | 1.30 | 3.0992 | 3.9 | ||
43 | Technetium | Tc | 1.9 | 1.90 | 1.51 | 1.36 | 3.2244 | |||
44 | Ruthenium | Ru | 2.2 | 2.20 | 1.54 | 1.42 | 3.3360 | 4.5 | ||
45 | Rhodium | Rh | 2.2 | 2.28 | 1.56 | 1.45 | 3.4611 | 4.30 | ||
46 | Palladium | Pd | 2.2 | 2.20 | 1.59 | 1.35 | 3.5727 | 4.45 | ||
47 | Silver | Ag | 1.9 | 1.93 | 1.87 | 1.42 | 3.6842 | 4.44 | ||
48 | Cadmium | Cd | 1.7 | 1.69 | 1.52 | 1.73 | 1.46 | 3.7958 | 4.33 | |
49 | Indium | In | 1.7 | 1.78 | 1.656 | 1.3 | 1.88 | 1.49 | 4.253 | 3.1 |
50 | Tin | Sn | 1.8 | 1.96 | 1.824 | 1.8 | 2.02 | 1.72 | 4.672 | 4.30 |
51 | Antimony | Sb | 1.9 | 2.05 | 1.984 | 2.0 | 2.19 | 1.82 | 5.0203 | 4.85 |
52 | Tellurium | Te | 2.1 | 2.10 | 2.158 | 2.2 | 2.34 | 2.01 | 5.3250 | 5.49 |
53 | Iodine | I | 2.5 | 2.66 | 2.359 | 2.7 | 2.50 | 2.21 | 3.5836 | 6.76 |
54 | Xenon | Xe | 2.582 | 2.63 | 2.40 | 5.8121 | ||||
55 | Cesium | Cs | 0.7 | 0.79 | 0.659 | 1.0 | 0.69 | 0.86 | 2.18 | |
56 | Barium | Ba | 0.9 | 0.89 | 0.881 | 0.93 | 0.97 | 2.4 | ||
57 | Lanthanum | La | 1.1 | 1.10 | 1.09 | 0.92 | 1.08 | 3.1 | ||
58 | Cerium | Ce | 1.1 | 1.12 | 1.08 | |||||
59 | Praseodymium | Pr | 1.1 | 1.13 | 1.07 | |||||
60 | Neodymium | Nd | 1.1 | 1.14 | 1.07 | |||||
61 | Promethium | Pm | 1.1 | 1.13 | 1.07 | |||||
62 | Samarium | Sm | 1.1 | 1.17 | 1.07 | |||||
63 | Europium | Eu | 1.1 | 1.20 | 1.01 | |||||
64 | Gadolinium | Gd | 1.1 | 1.20 | 1.11 | |||||
65 | Terbium | Tb | 1.1 | 1.20 | 1.10 | |||||
66 | Dysprosium | Dy | 1.1 | 1.22 | 1.10 | |||||
67 | Holmium | Ho | 1.1 | 1.23 | 1.10 | |||||
68 | Erbium | Er | 1.1 | 1.24 | 1.11 | |||||
69 | Thulium | Tm | 1.1 | 1.25 | 1.11 | |||||
70 | Ytterbium | Yb | 1.1 | 1.10 | 1.06 | |||||
71 | Lutetium | Lu | 1.1 | 1.27 | 1.14 | |||||
72 | Hafnium | Hf | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.16 | 1.23 | 3.8 | |||
73 | Tantalum | Ta | 1.5 | 1.50 | 1.34 | 1.33 | 4.11 | |||
74 | Tungsten | W | 1.7 | 2.36 | 1.47 | 1.40 | 4.40 | |||
75 | Rhenium | Re | 1.9 | 1.90 | 1.60 | 1.46 | 4.02 | |||
76 | Osmium | Os | 2.2 | 2.20 | 1.65 | 1.52 | 4.9 | |||
77 | Iridium | Ir | 2.2 | 2.20 | 1.68 | 1.55 | 5.4 | |||
78 | Platinum | Pt | 2.2 | 2.28 | 1.72 | 1.44 | 5.6 | |||
79 | Gold | Au | 2.4 | 2.54 | 1.92 | 1.42 | 5.77 | |||
80 | Mercury | Pa | 1.9 | 2.00 | 1.76 | 1.92 | 1.44 | 4.91 | ||
81 | Thallium | Tl | 1.8 | 2.04 | 1.789 | 1.96 | 1.44 | 3.2 | ||
82 | Lead | Pb | 1.8 | 2.33 | 1.854 | 2.01 | 1.55 | 3.90 | ||
83 | Bismuth | Bi | 1.9 | 2.02 | 2.01 | 2.06 | 1.67 | 4.69 | ||
84 | Polonium | Po | 2.0 | 2.00 | 2.39 | 1.76 | ||||
85 | Astatine | At | 2.2 | 2.20 | 2.60 | 1.90 | ||||
86 | Radon | Rn | 2.06 | |||||||
87 | Francium | Fr | 0.7 | 0.70 | 0.86 | |||||
88 | Radium | Ra | 0.9 | 0.90 | 0.97 | |||||
89 | Actinium | Ac | 1.1 | 1.10 | 1.00 | |||||
90 | Thorium | Th | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.11 | |||||
91 | Protactinium | Pa | 1.5 | 1.50 | 1.14 | |||||
92 | Uranium | U | 1.7 | 1.38 | 1.22 | |||||
93 | Neptunium | Np | 1.3 | 1.36 | 1.22 | |||||
94 | Plutonium | Pu | 1.3 | 1.28 | 1.22 | |||||
95 | Americium | Am | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
96 | Curium | Cm | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
97 | Berkelium | Bk | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
98 | Californium | Cf | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
99 | Einsteinium | Es | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
100 | Fermium | Fm | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
101 | Mendelevium | Md | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
102 | Nobelium | No | 1.3 | 1.30 | 1.2 | |||||
103 | Lawrencium | Lr | 1.3 | 1.30 | ||||||
104 | Rutherfordium | Rf | ||||||||
105 | Dubnium | Db | ||||||||
106 | Seaborgium | Sg | ||||||||
107 | Bohrium | Bh | ||||||||
108 | Hassium | Hs | ||||||||
109 | Meitnerium | Mt | ||||||||
110 | Darmstadtium | Ds | ||||||||
111 | Roentgenium | Rg | ||||||||
112 | Copernicium | Cn | ||||||||
113 | Nihonium | Nh | ||||||||
114 | Flerovium | Fl | ||||||||
115 | Moscovium | Mc | ||||||||
116 | Livermorium | Lv | ||||||||
117 | Tennessine | Ts | ||||||||
118 | Oganesson | Og |
[1, 2] - Pauling´s scale of electronegativity
* [1.1] - Linus Pauling: The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms. ''Journal of the American Chemical Society'', 1932, DOI 10.1021/ja01348a011.
[3] - Electronegativity by Allen scale
* [2] - Leland C. Allen: Electronegativity is the average one-electron energy of the valence-shell electrons in ground-state free atoms. ''Journal of the American Chemical Society'', 1989, DOI 10.1021/ja00207a003.
[4] - Mulliken scale of electronegativity
* [3.1] - A New Electroaffinity Scale; Together with Data on Valence States and on Valence Ionization Potentials and Electron Affinities. ''Journal of Chemical Physics'', 1934, DOI 10.1063/1.1749394.
* [3.2] - Robert S. Mulliken: Electronic Structures of Molecules XI. Electroaffinity, Molecular Orbitals and Dipole Moments. ''Journal of Chemical Physics'', 1935, DOI 10.1063/1.1749731.
[5] - Sanderson scale of electronegativity
* [5.1] - R. T. Sanderson: Electronegativity and bond energy. ''Journal of the American Chemical Society'', 1983, DOI 10.1021/ja00346a026.
* [5.2] - R. T. Sanderson: Principles of electronegativity Part I. General nature. ''Journal of Chemical Education'', 1988, DOI 10.1021/ed065p112.
* [5.3] - R. T. Sanderson: Principles of electronegativity Part II. Applications. ''Journal of Chemical Education'', 1988, DOI 10.1021/ed065p227.
* R. T. Sanderson: Polar Covalence. Academic Press, 1983, ISBN 0-12-618080-6.
[6] - Allred-Rochow electronegativity values
* [6.1] - A.L. Allred, E.G. Rochow: A scale of electronegativity based on electrostatic force. ''Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry'', 1958, DOI 10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2.
* [6.2] - A.L. Allred: Electronegativity values from thermochemical data.''Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry'', 1961, DOI 10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5.
[7] - Ghosh und Gupta electronegativity values
* [7.1] - Dulal C. Ghosh, Kartick Gupta: A New Scale Of Electronegativity Of 54 Elements Of Periodic Table Based On Polarizability Of Atoms. ''Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry'', 2006, DOI 10.1142/S0219633606002726.
[8] - Pearson scale of electronegativity
* [8.1] - Ralph G. Pearson: Absolute electronegativity and hardness: application to inorganic chemistry, ''Inorganic Chemistry'' (1988), DOI dx.doi.org/10.1021/ic00277a030.
[9] - Smith scale of electronegativity [Werte hier nicht abgebildet]
* [9.1] - Derek W. Smith: Electronegativity in two dimensions: Reassessment and resolution of the Pearson-Pauling paradox. ''Journal of Chemical Education'', (1990), DOI 10.1021/ed067p911.
[10] - Nagle scale of electronegativity [data not specified here]
* [10.1] - Jeffrey K. Nagle: Atomic polarizability and electronegativity. ''Journal of the American Chemical Society'', (1990), DOI 10.1021/ja00168a019.
Further literature sources:
* [11] - Electronegativity. Definition, IUPAC Gold Book, DOI 10.1351/goldbook.E01990.
* Linus Pauling (Heinrich Noller): Die Natur der chemischen Bindung, Verlag Chemie 1962, ISBN 3527252177, ISBN 978-3527252176.
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